Tikki Tavi Movie And Movie Analysis - 715 Words

Humans can be saved by animals that were being find by them somewhere and decided to take care of them. Precisely, some animals are braver and stronger than other dangerous animals. There are many ways that a book [stories] can be different, and relate to the movie. The book of a story is better than the movie because the book has more detail than the movie. In the story of Rikki- tikki-tavi, there are many similarities and differences between the Settling, characters and the Theme. Mongoose are well known for their ability to fight and kill venomous snakes venomous, particularly Cobras[Rikki-tikki].〠This story, Rikki-tikki-tavi was a story of the great war that Rikki-tikki fought single-handed, through the bathrooms of the big bungalow†¦show more content†¦Sixth, Rikki- tikki was washed away and cluck down the road path ditch, and find a little wisp of grass floating there, when he revived, he was in the hot sun lying by a garden path. The characters similarities in the book and the movie was when Darzee helped Rikki by telling him what Nag and Nagaina are up to. Chuchundra gives Rikki advice that really helped, while Rikki does the real fight by himself. Teddy’s parents accepted Rikki into their home, Nag and Nagania always has a scret plan, but it never works out well for them. Teddy’s mother was worried both in the movie and the book that Rikki may bite Teddy since Rikki is on the pillow close to Teddy’s neck. Nag ate one of Darzee’s babies when the babies fell out of the nest. Teddy was always proud when Rikki-tikki kills a snake. Nag and Nagania were planning to kill the human family so tht all the Mongoose will be able to leave. Differences in the book and movie occure when Rikki-tikki always tells Chuchundra that he killed Karait in the book,but Rikki doesn’t in the movie. In the book, Rikki went back to the house to tell Coppersmith, Darzee, and the garden that Nagaina is dead. Darzee’s wife was more smart in the book than the movie. The book of Rikki-tikki-tavi led into more detail than the movie did. Chuchundra help Rikki a lot in the book to kill Nag and Nagaina. Teddy finds out that Rikki killed Nag in the book, but doesn’t in the movie. The difference of the theme in the movie and the book. Nag was nice to

Capital Punishment Should Not Be Banned - 2007 Words

â€Å"An eye for an eye leaves the whole world blind; or does it?† Capital punishment, or the death penalty as is more commonly known, should not be, but, is a contemporary problem in the United States. Most of the entire world today has abolished the death penalty. However, there are still many states within the U.S. that still exercise this form of punishment. The most preferred method of execution which is exercised by more than 35 states in the U.S. Is lethal injection. Many countries today like Mexico, Portugal, Liberia, turkey, and many more do not exercise the sentence of capital punishment. (Robinson, 1995). Also some U.S. states like New Mexico, Connecticut, Illinois, and New Jersey don’t exercise this form of capital punishment. (Robinson, 1995). If there are many countries all throughout the world and many states abolishing the use of capital punishment, why does the U.S. still exercise it? Some reasons that capital punishment still exists in the United Stat es is because it deters people from committing the same crime, provides retribution for the families of their lost ones, and it is least expensive to kill someone than charge them with the sentence of life without parole. Millions and millions of dollars are being spent every year when a person is sentenced with life without parole. In comparison to the death penalty, these cases are much more expensive over the years. Capital punishment cases normally take a great amount of time before they reach a finalShow MoreRelatedshould capital punishment be banned?975 Words   |  4 PagesCapital punishment is the death penalty given by the government of a country, to people who have committed hideous crimes like homicide, rape and so on. Death penalty has been a way of punishing people since ages. Although there are some countries that have abolished death penalty from their law, there are still many which still practise the act of killing a person for crime. Death penalty is prevalent in the US, Asian and Middle Eastern countries. Some of the ways of executing criminals are hangingRead MoreCapital Punishment Should Be Banned1515 Words   |  7 Pages Capital punishment has been a part of the nation’ s history as it dates back to the British North American colonies. Capital punishment was also used as a way to remove those prosecuted for being â€Å"witches† during the famous Salem Witch Trials. These days the use of the death penalty has become an anachronism. In recent times has capital punishment become a place for argument to those supporting and those opposing the death penalty. Capital punishment should be federally banned for its inconsistenciesRead MoreCapital Punishment Should Not Be Banned1581 Words   |  7 Pages Capital punishment needs to be banned in California because it is morally wrong, it violates the constitution and it can cost the lives of innocent people. The death penalty is a legal punishment of execution when a capital crime has been committed. In the United States, there are 41 capital offenses that are legally punishable by death. The death penalty dates back to various centuries ago and it is still used in today’s world. Each year, tho usands of people are put on death row for an averageRead MoreShould Capital Punishment Be Banned? Essay1788 Words   |  8 Pagespractices capital punishment. Americans pride themselves on living in the country that they believe does nothing wrong in terms of punishing those who commit heinous crimes. Unfortunately, that innocent image of America happens not to be true. Over 160 members of the United Nations (U.N.) have already banned capital punishment including the entirety of the European Union (E.U.). Even the Universal Declaration of Human Rights claims that capital punishment is wrong; therefore, punishment via deathRead MoreShould Capital Punishment Be Banned?908 Words   |  4 PagesRecently, in Oklahoma, 43 year old Clayton Lockett underwent a botched process for Capitol punishment. Although, according to the associated press, Governor Mary Fallin agrees that execution is the appropriate punishment for the most horrendous crimes, executions have been stopped until new pro tocol and procedure has been implemented. This unfortunate incident has brought back to light the issues behind the death penalty. Problems with current methods have become apparent and secondary methods doRead MoreCapital Punishment Should Not Be Banned1773 Words   |  8 Pagesdecades capital punishment has been a controversial debate on whether it should be used for convicted felons or not. Some believe it is the right way to finally have justice and end crime while, others believe it is inhumane and considered murder. Capital punishment, or the death penalty, is the process of ending one’s life through different execution methods. Capital punishment is a cruel and unusual way of ending someone’s life when they could be in prison for life. Capital punishment is expensiveRead MoreCapital punishments should not be banned; people believe capital punishment is unconstitutional,900 Words   |  4 PagesCapital punishments should not be banned; people believe capital pu nishment is unconstitutional, that the person on death row actually committed a crime that put them there. There are complaints about the money put out for capital punishment and some think that the death penalty sends the wrong message or that our government is broken. Even though people believe capital punishment should be banned, it should not be banned due to multiple reasons. In the United States, capital punishment (also knownRead MoreImagine Having A Criminal, Who Has Escaped From Multiple1663 Words   |  7 Pagespowerful and has lots of money. What should happen to this extremely dangerous criminal when he is caught again? This is where capital punishment would come into play. Some people say the capital punishment should not be banned in any U. S. state and many people say capital punishment should be federally banned. However, both sides would agree they want a safe society and that crime should have a punishment. A common misconception about capital punishment is that people think it is murder; thisRead MoreBanning Capital Punishment in the United States Essay1187 Words   |  5 PagesBanning the use of capital punishment in the United States Capital punishment (the death penalty) is a legal procedure which is known as the most severe punishment where the law authorizes execution as a punishment for criminals (Gerald, 2008). Many people claim that allowing such a punishment will help decrease the crime rate, and also give closure to the victim’s family, but if you as American citizens analyze this situation in more detail you can see that taking a life for taking a life is moreRead MoreBenefits Of The Death Penalty Essay1295 Words   |  6 PagesOne of the most debated issues, whether capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, should be banned or still be used, is still a widely disputed issue at the heart of political debate. Many states recently have been abolishing capital punishment. Yet, as of October 2014, support for capital punishment is still strong as three fifths of Americans continue to back capital punishment. It is important that capital punishment is included as a punishment for all viole nt criminals for it can be

How Gender Operates Within The Setting Of An Olivia Vacation

31/10/2014 Assignment 1 – Minor Essay OPOL216 – Sex and Gender Matters Allysen Stewart 32579398 Assignment 1 – Minor Essay OPOL216 – Sex and Gender Matters This essay will critically discuss how gender operates within the setting of an Olivia Vacation (https://www.olivia.com), drawing from personal experiences from a recent trip to a Hawaiian Resort. The paper will focus on personal observations of the underlying forces involved in the reproduction and disruption of gender relations, and their resulting effects (Atwell, 2014). By focusing on the gender roles within a lesbian environment, the paper will examine topics from the course material that deliberate sex and gender, gender and nature, sexuality,†¦show more content†¦Trans people suffer from gender dysphoria, which accompanies Gender Identity Disorder (GID) where they feel that their emotional and psychological identity is in opposition to the biological sex they were assigned at birth (Wilchins, 2004; Furnham Sen, 2013). Gender is socially constructed, signifying processes and practices of conduct (doing, undoing and re-doing gender) (West Zimmerman, 1987; Deutsch, 2007; West Zimmerman, 2007) based on an assigned sex category (Hird, 2000; Risman, 2004; Connell, 2010). Sex, in contrast, refers to the biological differences between men and women (chromosomes, hormones and genitalia) (Harding, 1996; Hird, 2000). According to Wittig (1992), lesbians are categorised sexually as women, yet they abandon the heteronormative assumptions associated with the female identity (Hird, 2000, Bobel Kwan, 2011). An example of this is the social assumption that a girl will grow up and marry a man. Heteronormativity suggests that people fall into distinct gender roles (man and woman) (Woodruffe-Burton Bairstow, 2013), challenging the essentialist view of sexuality being biologically determined (Morton, Postmes, Haslam Hornsey, 2009) while implying the social construction of homosexuality (DeLamater Hyde, 1998; Fuss, 1989). Within the lesbian community, distinct gender roles still exist and are visibly adopted by members, as was evident during my Olivia experience. In the book, Persistence (Coyote Sharman, 2011), one of

The Decline Of The 19th Century - 1216 Words

Prior to the 15th century Europe had not much, if any, knowledge of the new world. Content with many small kingdoms and farms, there was no reason to explore. The economy was limited and life was simple. However, by the latter part of the century, conditions changed and Europe’s views did as well. At this time the population experienced tremendous growth. This was definitely a motive for expansion since the economy which was once very weak was now beginning to boom. Europe was truly breaking into a modern age. This movement is referred to as the Renaissance or â€Å"rebirth†. European government, commerce, and technology were on the rise. Governments became more powerful monarchs created nation states. These nations developed their own armies,†¦show more content†¦Spain, Portugal, and France desired to build Catholic empires in the new world. Columbus thought himself to be chosen by God to embark on his journey. The Dutch and English desired to convert the natives of the new world to Protestantism. Many went simply to be free to practice their faith according to their own conscience and in their own form. In 1606 James I of England gave charters to the London Company and Plymouth Company to try to establish colonies in the new land. England’s attempts until now were unsuccessful. The London Company landed in what they named Jamestown in 1607. The colonists needed to not only make a profit for the company, but they needed to survive. This proved to be nearly impossib le. Jamestown was not well suited for cultivation. The humid summer led to outbreaks of malaria and it was situated in the midst of Native American territories. By 1608 Captain John Smith took over the leadership of the colony and saved it from the same fate the previous colonists had suffered. The London Company, now Virginia Company, received another charter in 1609 from the King. It gave the colonists more land and less power. The idea was to sell stock to people who would remain in England but share future company profits, give stock to planters that would journey to the colony on their own, and transport people for free in return for serving the company for seven years. Things did not turn out as planned.

What is a relationship Free Essays

Reid with each other to. Hat makes this relationship special is we bond together and we treat each other nicely and are not disrespectful to one another-well crystal is special to me is she doesn’t brag about things and she doesn’t cry over dumb things and she’s kind to one another. Crystal and recognized the relationship is when we started talking to each other a lot. We will write a custom essay sample on What is a relationship or any similar topic only for you Order Now Let all started back in the day 2011,we were at a party and I was eating food like usual and than saw her sitting down and I talked to her than we started to talk for a few than we have been friends since than. My relationship with this person is great ,we still hang out with each other and eating food, watching movies like usual. How feel about the relationship now? Is good like said we chill,eat,movies than more eating. What this relationship means to me is were just normal people , eating food with my best friend and its great ‘nice to each other. I learned thru this relationship is were not always goanna be with each other even thou we live 1 house down and not to be disrespectful. This experience will help me with other people is don’t judge a book by its cover like just be nice to one another. How to cite What is a relationship, Papers

The Red Scarf Girl free essay sample

However, when she is selected to audition for the Central Liberation Army Dancer, her parents prevent her from auditioning because of the political background investigations that her family will not be able to pass due to their poor class status. Broken hearted and dreams shattered, Ji-Li follows her parents orders ,and is beginning to doubt whether her goals are achievable now. One weekend, Ji-Li Jiang and her two siblings went to a bookstore, only to see a commotion of people campaigning to â€Å"Destroy the Four Olds†. Chairman Mao had started the Cultural Revolution in 1966. Ever since then, she would hear on the radio about the needs to end the evil, and destructive influences of the â€Å"Four Olds†; old ideas, cultures, customs, and habit. Chairman Mao believed that we would never succeed at building a new, strong, and socialist country until the â€Å"Four Olds† are destroyed and the â€Å"Four News† are established. We will write a custom essay sample on The Red Scarf Girl or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Excited and full of spirit after watching the campaign, she rushes home only to be reprimanded by her parents for what she is doing. On Monday afternoon, before school was dismissed, Ji-Li met up with some of her friends and soon small talk becomes name calling. This was the first time she experienced discrimination because of her â€Å"Four Old† actions and will face much more throughout the book. Red Guards are finally emerging as powerful and respectable people, and are looked at as heroes to everyone, including the Jiang family. To promote communism, her school starts and organization called The Red Successors. This organization acts as a starting point for young Red Guards. Ji-Li was originally nominated to be a red successor, but a boy in her class, whose mother was on the neighborhood committee, said that the nominations should be done by class statues instead of grade. He told the class that her grandfather was a landlord and the family is a bunch of rightists. She was no longer nominated to be a red successor. After class, she was cornered by the new successors and was told for her to change her ways or else and yet again experienced discrimination because of her past Ji-Li Jiang’s days in primary school are beginning to dwindle, and will soon be in junior high school. Disappointed and sad that she won’t get into good schools since they do not have a respectable class status, she loses all hope in everything. Luckily, her teacher found a respectable school in Shanghai, but is only to be disappointed again when they find out that her teacher’s recommendations have been dismissed and she is put into a school according to their neighborhood. The summer before she goes to high school, her family no longer sees the Red Guard as heroes and they are under the constant terror of being arrested. She has seen them searching houses of suspected rightists and collecting all their valuables. Slowly and steadily her neighborhood becomes a cold and lonely place filled with families scared and frightened of the next attack of the Red Guards. Her family begins to prepare for the worst and start burning valuables that would seem to be â€Å"Four Olds†. However, she still sees the Red Guards as heroes and believes that they have a right to look through a person’s property. The Red Guards are now unstoppable and is acting on their own in the name of Mao. Ji-Li and her neighbors witnessed them forcing a man kneel on the dirty sidewalk and stay in the sweltering sun in front of the propaganda wall with a picture of Mao on it. He stayed there until he fainted, and while returning from the market, she heard a large thump and found her best friend’s grandmother’s intestines splattered across the asphalt. During the funeral, her friend’s family was not allowed to mourn over her at all. The Jiang family is becoming more and more scared of being searched and their Grandmother cannot handle the tension. So, every day the grandmother and the children were sent to the park to play and eat. Before returning home, Ji-Li was to look at their house and see if the mop was out on the porch. This indicated that the house is being searched and they had to wait until they passed. Weeks after weeks of going to the park, the grandmother got tired of the routine and decided to stay home. Unfortunately, that day was when the house was searched. The Red Guards stormed in, and charged towards their drawers, cabinets, and chest, instantly their floors were cluttered with their contents. One of the Red Guards found Ji-Li’s stamp collection, which is consider bourgeois now. Fortunately, none of them were accused of anything, for now. The days of clean up were long and silent. While cleaning up her room, Ji-Li found her sanitary belt lying on the floor bare. Flustered and angry, she realizes how corrupt the Red Guard really is. Isn’t home a private place? A place to feel secure? Away from the horrors of the world? Ji-Li Jiang finally begins junior high school. Overwhelmed of the size of the school she scurries off to her classes. When she arrives, she is overjoyed to find out that none of her old class mates are in her new class! She can have a fresh start, a new beginning, where her class status won’t be known by anyone. She continues to succeed in school and becomes one of the top students in her class. Everyone accepts her for who she is because they assumed that she was just like them. But paranoia got the best of her, and she started to make accusations to make it look like she was not a landlord’s granddaughter. On a late winter night, where the air in the Jiang house is silent and suffocating, a soft knock was heard. Another knock, followed by a soft whisper. â€Å"Lao Jiang! Lao Jiang! †. Ji-Li opened the door only to find Uncle Fan, or what was left of him. His face was swollen, bruised, and bloody. He was taken inside where he was cleaned up. Grandma told the children to go to their bedrooms and close the door. He explained that he was accused of listening to a foreign radio broadcast, even though he had not. â€Å"So what if I never listened to foreign radio broadcasts? They’ll stop beating me if I confess to it, won’t they? ‘Leniency to those who confess, and severity to those who resist†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Listening to foreign radio broadcast was forbidden because China did not want its people to know of anything else other than communism. For someone to know of the outside world, would cause chaos and the government would not have any control over its people. The Red Guards locked up both Uncle Fan and Ji-Li’s father for his affiliation with a charged man. Locked up and not been seen for days, Ji-Li and her family was starting to get extremely worried. The only hope they had was to pray. It was leniency that got Uncle Fan to confess. To lie about who was listening to the foreign radio broadcasts and who was making counterrevolutionary acts. Lao was left with all the blame and Uncle Fan was free to go, or so it seemed. Still extremely worried, Ji-Li’s family take action and decide to send Ji-Li to the place where her father was held at. When she arrived, she was allowed to see him, but he was not allowed to see her. They were given a small amount of time to converse. After saying her goodbyes, the foreman of the place tried to make her testify against her father, to make a clean break with her parents and follow Chairman Mao into a bright future. But, she declines the offer after some hesitancy. The past couple of days, Ji-Li Jiang has been helping her grandmother and taking care of her ill mother instead of going to school. Then, unexpectedly one of her classmates comes and tells her she has been beckoned to a meeting. She goes there and realizes that her classmates are nonjudgmental about her current situation, even though her father was detained by the revolutionaries. At the meeting, she is chosen to present an exhibition on communism. Surprised and thrilled, she takes the offer and works hard and long on the project with her classmates. After what seemed like hours, they finally finished it. They were overjoyed when they heard the good news. Dad is coming home! It turns out that Uncle Zhu—not Uncle Fan—was to blame. Like Uncle Fan and Ji-Li’s dad, Uncle Zhu was detained as well, and wanted to improve his own situation by cooperating with the investigation. He made up a story about the foreign radio, thinking that if he confessed to something, he would be treated with leniency. But when her dad continued to deny his participation, they got angrier and angrier! They started to press Uncle Zhu for details. Under pressure he stupidly told them that her dad and himself had used a transistor radio, which they had buried in his backyard. They immediately went to search for the radio, but found nothing. They were furious and gave Uncle Zhu a good beating. The air was filled with the scent of fresh shrimp and vegetables for the celebration. But, when the time came for his arrival, the Jiang family was only met with disappointment and sorrow. When they opened the door, they saw him and two Red Guards behind him. They marched him upstairs only to get him some clothes and left. They all watched him leave with his escorts until their heads became small triangles. The next day, they were met with despair as they read the headlines of the Worker’ Revolt. It said that the Jiangs were a big landlord family in Nanjing that owned over thirty-three hundred acres of land and had lots of businesses. They were so rich that people called them the ‘Half-City Jiangs’. Because of this her family was denounced in civilization and called a ‘black whelp’ for being the relatives of landlords. Ji-Li has finally let lose. Anger rose from her as she spoke â€Å"I hate landlords. I hate this landlord family! † As usual, while Ji-Li was walking home from school, she passes the police station. Before letting that small building out of her sight, she stops, and hesitantly turns around. She timidly enters the station in search for the police officer. She was tired of being related to a ‘black whelp’ family and has decided to change her name. She tells the police officer her intent, and he praises her for her revolutionary actions. But while he is getting the papers, she jumps up and runs out. She sees how important her family is never going to leave them, for better or for worse. The exhibition hall was filled with noise that made Ji-Li’s stomach tighten. It was not like she had not presented a speech to a large crowd before. This time it was extremely important to her because the school leaders and district leaders were coming to evaluate her. But she is ready, and will do anything to gain her honor back. She did a terrific job and moves many spectators to tears with her speech. Everyone congratulates her, even Chairman Jin! However, the next day the foreman at her father’s work comes to see her the next day. He once again pesters her to testify against her father or else she will be taken off the committee. But the threats don’t scare her anymore. She holds strong and will not betray her father. The next day she was replaced by someone else and was told to go home. The summer was finally here and so was the long working hours in the field. Her friend persuades her to work in the countries instead of the factory, saying that it will help her class status. She leaves her family and goes to the farm. Here, she has to harvest five rows of corn each day in the blazing sun. She finds it very difficult and tends to finish at night time with her body sore and numb. She is determined to improve her class status and will not let anything get in her way, that is until she loses consciousness and passes out. After that she goes back to Shanghai, only to be pestered again to testify against her father. Ji-Li returns home after a long summer of working in the fields. One evening, she hears a soft knock at the door. She hears her ma opens it and brings the person to the bathroom where they silently discuss. Before long, the bathroom door opened again and the person was showed out. â€Å"I’ll let you know when I’ve finished revising it† she said. She closes the door and goes to tuck in Ji-Li. While being tucked in she notices some paper in her mother’s hands, and can’t help but wonder what where those papers. After her mother leaves the room, Ji-Li impulsively jumps out of bed and sneaks over to her mother’s bedroom where she hid it and began to read. The letter asks the communist government to take over the control of the oppressors in their fathers company. She creeps back into her room with her heart pounding. She could only imagine the horrors of what that letter could do if anyone of the people at her father’s work found it. The next day while doing their daily chores, they hear pounding feet on the stairs of the apartment. Everyone stricken with panic, as they wonder where to put the letter. Ji-Li’s ma goes to slow the guards down as Ji-Li tries to find a place to hide the letter. Her hands begin to shake uncontrollable as the time to think decreases. She suddenly remembers a little litter box up on the roof and cover the letter deeply in ash and smoothens it out. The guards come in and begin to empty anything they can get their hands on. Unable to find the letter, they give Ji-Li another chance, but when she doesn’t reply, they make grandma kneel in front of the wall until someone confesses. Suddenly, she hears a roar of laughter, while one of the guard waves the letter around. While the cat was going to the bathroom, it ranked up the ashes, revealing the concealed letter. They give grandma a broom and told her to start sweeping every day, for as of now she is now punished for being the landlord’s wife. They were told to pack and leave their apartment by tomorrow. After they were done packing they made their way to the door, and Ji-Li took in one long meaningful stare at their now emptied home. She closes the door and helps her grandma down the stairs, and a though came to her for the first time in her life. Should she continue to live at all? The book The Red Scarf Girl reminds me of the Holocaust because like the Jewish, half of the Chinese citizens were faced with discrimination as well. They were classified by their class status and their class status was made up of things their relatives did in the past! Also, when Ji-Li and her family was violated and was punish for writing a protest letter, it reminded me of why our amendments were made in the first place! Ji-Li Jiang and her family had her First Amendment violated (her right of speech), her Fourth Amendment (search and seizure), and her Fifth Amendment (due process). In India, a person gets discriminated because of the status of their family and sometimes is never able to change that status because of their limited resources. The Red Scarf Girl is an emotional story about how a girl was able to stand up to communism.

Traditional Public Administration vs. The New Public Management free essay sample

The development of modern bureaucracies made possible the industrial revolution and the breakthroughs of modern economies. But at the end of the 20th century that classical model of public administration was challenged by what has been called the â€Å"new public management. † This chapter will characterize the â€Å"traditional† and the â€Å"new public management† approaches to public administration and then compare them on three fundamental questions that every theory of public administration must answer: 1) what shall be done, i. . policy direction; 2) who shall do it, i. e. personnel management; and 3) how to enforce compliance, i. e. accountability. The conclusion will examine the tension between accountability and efficiency in traditional public administration and the new public management in answering the three fundamental questions posed above. I. Classical Public Administration The traditional model of public administration rests in important ways on the articulation by Max Weber of the nature of bureaucracy. Weber emphasized control from top to bottom in the form of monocratic hierarchy, that is, a system of control in which policy is set at the top and carried out through a series of offices, with each manager and worker reporting to one superior and held to account by that person. The bureaucratic system is based on a set of rules and regulations flowing from public law; the system of control is rational and legal. The role of the bureaucrat is strictly subordinate to the political superior. Max Weber described the role of the civil servant and the importance of hierarchical control in a bureaucratic system: To take a stand, to be passionate . . . is the politician’s element . . . indeed, exactly the opposite, principle of responsible from that of the civil servant. The honor of the civil servant is vested in his ability to execute conscientiously the order of the superior authorities. . . .Without this moral discipline and self-denial, in the highest sense, the whole apparatus would fall to pieces. 1 While the system which Weber observed in Germany developed over several centuries, there was a parallel development of bureaucracy in other countries during the industrial revolution. This model of bureaucracy was crucial to the development of large scale enterprises, private or public, throughout the developed world. 1 In the United States public administration Woodrow Wilson, later to become president, contributed to the traditional model by arguing for the separation of administration from political policy making. According to Wilson, citing as authority â€Å"eminent German writers,† â€Å". . administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices. Wilson was one of the main proponents of the politics-administration dichotomy which has been much reviled by later public administration scholars, but which has often been misunderstood. Those who dismiss the concept as obsolete take it as an empirical assertion about how administration works in practice. They observe that in fact, many high level civil servants have an important impact on policy, and thus dismiss the dichotomy. The real importance of the politics-administration dichotomy, however, has to do with its normative implications. 4 That is, the principle implied by the dichotomy is that elected officials and their direct appointees have the legal right to make policy decisions for the polity, and it is the duty of career civil servants to carry out those policies in good faith. Thus it is the moral obligation of the dichotomy that is important, not its empirical content. Frederick Taylor made a contribution to the classical model with his time and motion studies and careful analysis of the role of managers and workers. His techniques and managerial practices were adopted widely in the United States and throughout the world in the early 20th century. Taylor’s Principles of Scientific Management, published in 1911, was translated into German, and â€Å"Taylorism† was popular with German engineers before and after World War I. 5 Taylor’s principles of management emphasized tight control of work processes and careful planning by managers. Although his management techniques have een used at times to control workers to the point of domination, his original ideas did not necessarily imply the exploitation of workers. The traditional model of public administration spread throughout the industrialized world and ushered in the relative success of modern industrialized economies. Guy Peters summaries the principles of the traditional model in the following list of its major characteristics. An institutional civil service; 5) Internal regulation; 6) Equality (internally and externally to the organization). Since this traditional model was so successful in aiding the development of modern economies and Weber argued that it was the most efficient mode of organization possible, how could recent critics see it as old, outmoded, and inefficient? The answer is one of context and scale. In his historical context, Weber was comparing bureaucratic organization to charismatic and traditional modes of organization. Clearly, bureaucracy is capable of more efficient organization than these other historical modes of domination. But the broader point is one of scale and time. If one wants to coordinate the actions of hundreds or thousands of people in any sophisticated endeavor (such as those that governments undertake) there is no realistic alternative to bureaucratic organization. Or if one wants a large scale enterprise to exist over a long time frame, from years to decades, one must organize it bureaucratically. This does not mean that all elements of every large scale organization must adhere to each of Weber’s ideal type criteria, but the general outlines must be there: hierarchy, continuity, files, etc. When contemporary organizations are criticized for being inefficient, the implied comparison is with other contemporary organizations that sometimes work marginally better, not with completely different means of organization. In contemporary times, the most obvious alternative to bureaucracies is a market system; but in market systems large scale enterprises must be largely bureaucratic in order to exist over time (e. g. Fortune 500 companies in the United States). Similarly the exhortations to devolve or decentralize within government does not mean abandoning bureaucracy as a form of organization. It merely means shifting some functions from a large, centralized bureaucracy to smaller or geographically separated bureaucracies. As Klaus Konig points out, some aspects of the NPM are not incompatible with traditional public administration: Yet a distinction must be made as regards this renewal movement between those of its components that are compatible with the bureaucratic administration, even where it has a classical continental European character and those components which extend beyond the modernist, detail differentiations of state and administration. The idea of decentral responsibility for resources, for instance, is perfectly familiar to an organizational scenery featuring federalism, local self-government, departmental responsibility, formal organizations under private law, shifts of functions to external bodies and so on. 7 Thus the point of departure for the â€Å"new public management† prescriptions is not nonindustrialized economies or non-developed countries. The NPM rather wants to improve fully developed governments at the margins. As we have learned from Russia after the fall of Communism, market capitalism in the absence of a strong system of business law, enforcement of contracts, and a regulatory structure can easily lead to lawlessness and the private use of force to enforce contracts (or to break them). According to World Bank President James D. Wolfensohn, developing economies need: good governance with a system of laws, a justice system that enforces the laws (e. g. a contract system and bankruptcy laws), a financial system with accountable financial institutions, and a just social system. Without these prerequisites, economic development is impossible; and these prerequisites depend on a traditional form of public administration (which is not to say that NPM ideas are never relevant to developing countries). One of the main concerns of the traditional model was the accountability of the implementors of public policy to the governing constitutional rulers. If a system of government has not yet achieved the threshold of accountability, the implementation of NPM techniques is risky and may be counterproductive. II. The New Public Management The term new public management encompasses a wide range of techniques and perspectives that are intended to overcome the inefficiencies inherent in the traditional model of public administration. Robert Behn defines the New Public Management as â€Å". . . the entire collection of tactics and strategies that seek to enhance the performance of the public sector. The starting point is that the traditional bureaucratic structures that shered in the industrialized economies of the 20th century may have been appropriate for that era but have reached a point of diminishing returns. The large size and rigid structures of the traditional system are too cumbersome for the new era of instant communication and an economy in which economic value is based on information and its manipulation rather than industrial production. Production is still important, of course, but it is increasingly based on information systems. Controlling behavior of workers from the top does not allow those closest to service delivery to react quickly enough. Thus the new public management favors decentralized administration, delegation of discretion, contracting for goods and services, and the use of the market mechanisms of competition and customer service to improve performance. It aims to achieve accountability through the measurement of outcomes rather than accounting for inputs. Performance measures will take the place of tight control from the top through rules and regulations. Granting more discretion to managers to manage is necessary; if they are to be held accountable for their performance, they must have the flexibility to use their judgment. In the United States the NPM was embodied in the Clinton Administration’s National Performance Review (NPR). The proponents of the NPR contended that the prevailing paradigm of government organization in the U. S. was established during the progressive era at the turn of the century and was a reaction to the negative effects of the spoils system with its lack of competence and susceptibility to governmental corruption. The progressive paradigm of government organization, they argued, was designed during the industrial revolution and was modeled on large scale bureaucracy with hierarchical control from the top to ensure responsiveness to law and adherence to policy. But they argued that with the coming of the information revolution in the late twentieth century, the usefulness of the bureaucratic paradigm had been superseded by the need for more flexible organizations that can operate in a profoundly changed environment of global competition. The governmental reforms of the progressive era had been developed and elaborated so much that the rules and procedures that originally facilitated management came to choke off innovation. The admitted original benefits of large scale organization prevalent throughout the federal government were diminishing and the originally useful reforms had been counterproductive for some time. 10 To Guy Peters the new public management includes a range of reforms that have been tried over the past two decades by governments seeking to improve efficiency. The approaches of the NPM include more participation, flexibility, and deregulation internally, and the use of market mechanisms externally. 11 Perhaps the most dominant theme of the new techniques is the attempt to use market mechanisms to improve performance in the public sector. This includes privatization, in which functions formerly performed by government are given over to private sector or business organizations. In the celebrated case of New Zealand, the government privatized state enterprises in telephone service, oil production, insurance, post office, and air transport. In economies where the governmental sector is smaller and most sectors of the economy are already in private hands, such as the United States, privatization has taken the form of private sector delivery of goods and services that are paid for by the government, referred to as â€Å"contracting 4 out. † It is argued that businesses act more efficiently than governments because of different incentives and greater flexibility, and so contracting will save the taxpayers money. Donald Kettl summarizes the goal of the new public management approach as aiming to â€Å"Remedy a pathology of traditional bureaucracy that is hierarchically structured and authoritydriven,† and â€Å"to root out authority-driven hierarchical systems. †13 He summarizes the six â€Å"core characteristics† of the New public management approach as: productivity, marketization, service orientation, decentralization, a policy orientation, and accountability for results. Thompson and Thompson observe that the new public management approach â€Å"borrowed primarily from the literature of business administration, calling for more managerial freedom to use resources, a focus on results rather than inputs, and greater reliance on the private sector for service delivery. †14 III. Contrasting Approaches to Public Administration With respect to Public Administration, each modern state must answer the questions: 1. What shall be done: That is, who shall control policy? 2. Who shall do it: That is, who shall implement policies? 3. How shall compliance be enforced: That is, how shall performance be measured? Each of these questions must be answered by striking a balance between accountability and efficiency. If emphasis is placed primarily on accountability, tight hierarchical controls will be imposed; only certified officials will take actions for the state; and success will be measured by how faithfully processes are followed. If emphasis is placed primarily on efficiency, hierarchies will be loosened and discretion delegated; people outside the governmental hierarchies will conduct governmental operations; and the emphasis will be on measuring outcomes rather than monitoring compliance with procedures. Answering the question of what shall be done: That is, policy control. In the traditional model of public administration fundamental control lies in the laws enacted by the legislature and their faithful execution by the executive authority. In the words of Klaus Konig: In a state upholding the division of powers, the core of public administration lies in its executive function. Bound by the rule of legal regulations, it executes the laws passed by the democratic legislative body. In its hierarchical system of order it follows the instructions issued by the executive’s political leaders. Laws are carried out or implemented by executive branch departments or ministries that are structured as strict hierarchies. Accountability is achieved by the control of each level of implementation by the superior level of control. If a policy is not faithfully carried out, accountability can be assigned by examining each stage of the process to determine who (in which position) is at fault. Accountability and control are the greatest strengths of this type of system; compared to all other systems, it is very reliable. The downside to this traditional model 5 is that it is often relatively slow and cumbersome, and it is subject to the criticism that workers can become so concerned with complying with rules that they can lose sight of the overall goal or mission. The new public management would alleviate the problems caused by tight, hierarchical control by delegating greater flexibility and discretion to lower levels in the production of goods and services. It would delegate implementing discretion to those closest to service delivery. They would have greater control of hiring and firing personnel as well as discretion about how to spend money in the accomplishment of policy goals. If program implementation is contracted out, management decisions are at the discretion of private sector managers; and their decisions are acceptable as long as they legally produce the goods or services under contract. 16 2. Who shall do it? That is, personnel control. In traditional public administration the personnel of government are hired through a merit system designed by the government personnel agency and often enacted in law. A merit system is designed to prevent partisan political interference in the implementation of policy. The hallmark of such a system is neutral competence, with competence achieved through a system of hiring the most qualified workers for the positions. Partisan neutrality is achieved through rules that protect workers from partisan political pressure and prevent them from actively participating in partisan political campaigns. The new public management approach would carry out the policies of the state largely with employees who are not directly employed by the government. In the case of privatization, the government would abandon the attempt to provide some services entirely and leave their provision to the private sector. Control would be achieved through the market system; if goods are overpriced, a competitor will spring up to provide them at a lower price in order to make a profit. When the market will not provide some services because there are not enough customers who will pay for them, or not enough will be provided to accomplish the goals of the state, the new public management advocates the contracting by government with private businesses to carry out the purposes of the state. It is argued that private businesses can manage efficiently because they are not encumbered with the rules and regulations of merit systems (e. g. merit competition, classification, appeals of adverse actions, etc. ) and they can hire the workers they need in an efficient labor market. The result will be that the government’s goals will be accomplished at a cost to the public that competition will keep to a minimum. When government functions are contracted out to private organizations, some contract-imposed constraints may apply. But to impose a set of merit constraints on contractors could very well undermine the flexibility that contracting out is intended to provide and is one of the bases for using contracts in the first place. 17 The conditions for successful contracting include a market for goods and services in which there is competition among many firms and few barriers to entry. The costs that ought to be calculated when governments write contracts, in addition to the cost of production, include the 6 xpertise needed to write a precise contract and the cost of overseeing the contractor and inspecting the product. 3. How shall success be measured? That is, inputs, outputs, or outcomes. Without the discipline of a market system which is presumed to measure the economic value of goods and services produced in the private sector, it is difficult to place an economic value on goods and service produced by governments. The decision to produce public goods is a political choice made by political authorities. The definition of public goods includes those goods and services that the private sector will not produce (or will not produce enough of), because their production is not profitable enough. The decision about what goods and services this category includes is thus a political judgment. But this leaves the problem of how to measure the economic value of such goods and judge whether they are being produced efficiently. The traditional model of public administration places its major emphasis on accomplishing the mission and accountability for resources. A hallmark of the traditional model is its rhetorical stress on efficiency. But efficiency is very difficult to measure, and perhaps the rhetorical value of efficiency is so high because it is so hard to measure objectively. At a microlevel, of course, efficiency can be judged over time (e. g. more output from the same resources than last year) or compared with a similar unit producing comparable goods. But at higher levels of generality, e. g. at the program level, there are no broadly accepted measures of efficiency. Thus one of the most common measures of government production is that of resources used, that is, inputs. There is a parallel between stages and functions of budgeting as analyzed by Allen Schick and developing approaches of measuring the production of governmental services. Schick argued that â€Å"line item budgeting,† that is, careful accounting for the inputs used in government programs, was developed between 1915 and 1935. 18 It is control oriented, good at preventing financial impropriety, and easy to understand. Traditional accounting for governmental programs emphasizes the inputs that are used to accomplish missions, for example, number of personnel, dollar totals, number of vehicles, number of computers, energy consumed, etc. These measures are very good for accountability and for assuring that resources are not being stolen and that they are being used for the purposes for which they were intended. This type of accountability is also easy for overseers to understand, e. g. chief executives, the central budget agency, or legislators. Thus this inputs approach is quite popular and hard to replace with more sophisticated measures of efficiency or productivity. In contrast to the line-item or inputs approach, performance budgeting was developed between 1935 and 1960, and was intended to provide measures for evaluating the performance of certain functions. Rather than a control orientation, it was management oriented, and intended to measure the performance of governmental activities. The focus was on work to be done (activities) rather than the things (inputs) to be used in the work. The activities done were the outputs of the government programs. 7 In contrast to performance measurement, Schick argued that program budgeting, developed since 1960, would focus on outcomes rather than inputs or activities. Outcomes are the societal changes that are the intended purposes of governmental programs, for example, good health, national security, efficient transportation, justice, etc. The problem, of course, is that it is very difficult to measure outcomes, and even if they can be measured, it is extremely difficult to attribute their achievement to any one governmental program. The New Public Management approach rejects measuring inputs and advocates the use of â€Å"performance measures† to evaluate programs and management. Accountability for resources is less important than the accomplishment of goals at a given cost. Creative managers should be given the widest flexibility to use the resources at their disposal to accomplish programmatic missions. Their success will be measured by their performance in accomplishing goals rather than in their careful accounting for the resources (inputs) used. This model of performance measurement is quite attractive, as long as valid measures of public purposes can be devised. If we have good measures, we can choose between contractors by evaluating their measured output, and we can judge government agencies against proposals by contractors on the common measures. Managers can be rewarded based on the achievement of their performance goals. The difficulty lies in choosing the correct indicators that will validly measure what the governmental program is really intended to accomplish. The more precisely the service or good can be objectively specified, the more likely the public will be able to evaluate the product and judge whether it is getting the best value for its payments. In comparing public versus private delivery of goods and services, the costs of production must be evaluated as well as the costs of writing the contract and monitoring its implementation. 19 Thus NPM techniques work best when the government wants to purchase goods whose quantity and quality can be easily assessed. The closer the production resembles traditional private sector goods, the easier it is to create performance measures to assure that contracts have been honored. There are some services that can be relatively easily measured, such as janitorial services or medical services. But when it comes to analytical services or unique products, the more difficult the problem of measurement becomes. Even if precise measurement is impossible, it may still make sense to contract with businesses, for example for advanced weapons systems or computing systems. But social services or analytic services are difficult to measure. The more you move to professional services that call for judgement or products that are unique, the more expertise is necessary to monitor the quality of service and the more costly it is to monitor performance. IV. Conclusion A tension between accountability and efficiency has marked the contrast of traditional public administration and the new public management. The traditional model tilts toward accountability. Max Weber’s answer tilted toward accountability in the form of bureaucracy, with strict hierarchical control from the top. Woodrow Wilson’s answer was the politics/administration dichotomy in which civil servants would use efficient techniques to carry out political policy choices. Frederick Taylor’s answer was the tight management control of 8 efined manufacturing techniques of scientific management. The new public management favors loosening the strictures of the traditional model to allow for more creativity and flexibility in order to achieve new efficiencies and better customer service. It would give lower level managers more flexibility to use their own information and judgment to make decisions (that is, â€Å"let managers manage†). It would encourage managers to take risks and be more entrepreneurial. And it would achieve accountability by measuring outputs rather than by monitoring processes. In states with large public sectors, it encourages privatizing functions, and in states with smaller public sectors it encourages contracting with private organizations for the provision of public goods and services. The tension between traditional public administration and the new public management reflects the fundamental tension between accountability and efficiency that has always characterized public administration, but the balance is in flux. In Anglo-American systems the balance has shifted toward efficiency in the late 20th century. While much progress has been made, the main political vulnerability of the contracting out movement in the United States is corruption. 20 The U. S. political system has had long experience with the corruption of public officials by the bribery of greedy contractors. If large scale or high visibility corruption is discovered and attributed to increased contracting, the pendulum will swing back toward accountability. But the advances of the NPM will not be lost entirely, just as the positive contributions of previous management fads were not lost even after their initial formulations had been abandoned. A less visible vulnerability of the NPM approach in the U. S. is the gradual eroding of the capacity of the government to oversee competently the production of goods and services. It is difficult for governments to match the higher salaries offered in the business world, even though financial gain is often not the most important incentive for public administrators. But a strong counter weight to any move by the government to take back control of the production of formerly contracted out services will be the political clout of contractors who will lobby the legislature against elimination of contracting programs.